Can faith (Bhakti) and knowledge (Gnāna) coexist?

Humans are essentially creatures of emotion. How much so ever the rational intellect may try to convince one of the futility of emotions, the heart still reins supreme. As the romantic poets of India in the 4th thru 10th centuries of CE exploited the beauty of Sānskrit language to tell the many tales of love, ‘Love of God’ also found its expression in the Hindu religion through the Bhakti movement. The devotional Bhakti movement that had its humble beginnings in South India during the early centuries of Common Era, expanded to envelop almost all of India from the 8^th Century CE through 17^th century CE. During this period, many famed temples came into being as the Kings found everlasting glory in the consecration of grandiose temples rather than Yāga rituals. India was not alone in this. Coincidentally during the same period, very similar movements had spread over rest of the world through Christianity and Islam

Ādi Sankara

India’s most prolific philosopher of Advaita Vedānta, Sri Ādi Sankara, is supposed to have lived in the 9^th Century AD. Ādi Sankara was a great devotee of many of the Hindu Gods and composed beautiful hymns to them even though his philosophy had anchored on an absolute God principle rather than a human-like God with qualities of benevolence and omniscience. Ādi Sankara offered himself as a living example on achieving the ultimate state of realization by simultaneously pursuing the distinct paths of knowledge and devotion. His primary inspiration for this came from the teachings of the Bhagawad Gita, Upanishads and the Brahma sutra. He also formalized the many devotional practices into six systems comprising worship of the Surya, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, Ganesha and Subramania. Sankara was also instrumental in consecrating many temples across India.

In Sankara’s philosophy of Advaita (non-dualism), the world’s reality is not absolute. He concluded that the world, which is conditioned by space-time and constrained by relationships between causes and effects, could not be real in the absolute sense. At the same time, Sankara did not totally deny the existence of the world. According to him the world’s reality is true in a relative sense and he called it as the ‘transitional reality’ (vyāvahārika satya). Brahman, according to Sankara and the scriptures, is the ‘absolute reality’ (āthyanthika satya) on which the transitional reality of the world is superimposed. Sankara also professed that within the transitional reality of the world, a collective consciousness exists experiencing the three states of awareness waking, sleep and dream states similar to an individual. This collective consciousness manifests in the three states of consciousness of waking, dream and sleep states as the ‘Iswara’, ‘Virāt’ and ‘Hiranyagarba’ respectively. According to Sankara, devotion was the relationship between the individual soul and this collective consciousness in the transitional reality. However, in absolute reality, the individual soul and the absolute Brahman are the same and devotion has no relevance. As a realized soul who could simultaneously be aware of these two states of reality, Sankara produced highly abstract philosophical texts about Brahman as well as beautiful hymns brimming with devotion about Ishwara. He also established four monasteries in the four corners of India to preserve and propagate his philosophy. These monasteries have continued to flourish and uphold his philosophy in spite of the many political upheavals India had undergone in the past thousand odd years.

Sankara’s philosophy, however, had failed to satisfy the fervor of the devotees whose

intensity of devotion only continued to rise. It s not very clear if thoughts of Christianity and Islam that had reached India around this time have had an influence on this rise of Bhakti movement. Sri Rāmanuja, a11^th century philosopher from the South, offered a variant to Advaita philosophy called Vishishta Advaita (Qualified non-dualism). He accepted the existence of many individual souls as real and postulated a merger of the individual soul with Iswara through intense devotion. However, for Ramanuja Vishnu was the only God. Sri Ramanuja wrote his commentary on all the major Vedānta texts including the Brahma Sutra, substantiating with logic his argument for a God who was absolute but at same time possessed qualities like omniscience and benvolence. Ramanuja’s philosophy has continued to attract many and the Sri Vaishnava School he established continues even today as a dominant section of Hindu religion.

Two centuries later, another brilliant philosopher from the south, Sri Mādhvachārya, went one more step farther than Sri Rāmanuja and argued for a purely theistic interpretation of Vedānta. His philosophy, Dvaita Vāda (Dualism), does not profess a merger of the individual soul with God (Vishnu) but a permanent residence in God’s abode through the merits of intense devotion. Unlike Sri Rāmānuja who had mostly chosen to stay in the south, Sri Mādhvachārya traveled extensively through India, challenging and defeating in debates many Vedānta scholars who held alternate views. Under Sri Mādhvachārya’s influence, Vaishnavism and Dvaita philosophy took strong roots in the regions of Karnataka and Konkan coast.

Meera Bhai

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu

Sant Tukka Ram

However, the strongest proponents of the Bhakti movement were not the philosophers but the many poet Saints who were living examples of ideal devotees. They also managed to bring the Hindu religion to the ordinary humans, thus relieving it from the tight clutches of scholarly knowledge and philosophy. These great poet saints appeared in all parts of India during the ascent of the Bhakti movement. Most notable among them are Sant Surdas and Meera Bhai (in the north and north-west), Sant Tulsi Das (in central India), Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (in the east), Sant Tukka Ram (in the west), Avvayar, Kodhai and the many Alvars and Nāyanārs (in the south). Their poetry and music have continued to spread devotion, peace and tranquility through India for many centuries.Through the Bhakti movement, faith more than reason took the central stage in India and idol worship became the most visible aspect of Hindu religion.

Bhakti movement and its emphasis on unquestionable faith also had an undesirable effect of superstitious beliefs spreading in the society. Uncertainty, insecurity and suffering that had gripped the psyche of the Indian society during the period of Islamic and colonial rules further fanned this. During this time, many God-men and God-women who claimed to perform miracles became the pallbearers of Hindu religion, casting a huge shadow on the religion’s

Swami Vivekananda

philosophical roots. This sad state of affairs continued until late19^th century until few learned western scholars happened to discover India’s rich philosophy that had continued to stay alive like an under current. The educated Indians had initially ignored the rich legacy they had inherited until they noticed that the western scholars had started to appreciate them. Thanks to the awareness that started developing among the more educated, India once again rediscovered its past glory through the many great ambassadors of knowledge it produced. Most notable among these great ambassadors of Hindu religion was Swami Vivenkānanda who traveled to America and Europe taking the authentic message of Advaita Vedānta to the west. Over this last century, the Hindu religion has once again returned to its original mission of empowering dedicated students with knowledge, enabling them on thier 'wlak over the razor blade' to realize ultimate truth. for their benefit, the modern saints of India, Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, and Sri Ramana Maharshi have lived exemplary lives on how both Bhakti(devotion) and Gnana (philosophical knowledge) could be effectively reconciled to live a complete spiritual life.

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Sri Ramana Mahrshi

Being and Becoming: The Hindu philosophy of living

Civilizations and cultures all over the world, including the Egyptians, Babylonians, Mayans, Chinese and Indians, have celebrated the winter solstice from time immemorial. In India, the starting of Sun's 'journey from the south to the north' has also been used as a symbol of ascension for the soul in a spiritual journey. One of the Hindu Gods celebrated during this time of the year is Sri Dharma Sāstha, more popularly known as Lord Ayyappa of Kerala. Millions of devotees observe ascetic living during the weeks leading up to the winter solstice and then make an arduous journey to the temple of Lord Ayyappa which is located deep inside a thick forest. The last leg of this journey requiring a barefooted  climb of the mountain on a gravel road is a great test of faith as well as endurance for the devotee. What makes a devotee to take on such personal sacrifices in order to get a mere glimpse of an idol? The obvious answer is faith. However, this fete is also an enactment of the core Hindu philosophy of living, of being and becoming.

The Hindu God trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva represent creation, sustenance and dissolution of everything in the universe as well as that of the universe itself. Brahma causes existence - time, space, matter, energy - to be. Vishnu oversees the 'being' of existence, its sustenance. Siva causes the dissolution or the process of 'becoming' by which things transform from one form to another. Hence, life or human existence, which is a continuous interplay of 'being' and 'becoming' can be metaphorically said to be a dance of Siva and Vishnu. The purāna story behind the origins of Sri Dharma Sāstha appears to have been developed with this philosophical insight.

The purāna story talks about a female demon Mahishi, with a buffalo head and human body, who terrorized the world having obtained a boon from Brahma that no one, self-evolved or born to a male and female couple, be able to kill her. The Devas had no answer to her prowess and had to surrender their rule. Their only hope to overcome Mahishi was in a divine offspring who would emanate from Siva and Vishnu. And, an opportunity for this presented itself when Lord Siva one time wished to see the Mohini (enchantress) form of Lord Vishnu. Lord Vishnu had  earlier adopted this female form to trick the Asurās and recover the pot of nectar they had secured from the churning of the ocean of milk. When Vishnu consented and once again appeared as Mohini, Lord Siva was overcome by the Māya of Vishnu and became enchanted in Mohini. And, from that union was born Lord Sāstha. Since Sāstha was born to a couple who were actually both male, Mahishi's boon didn't constrain him in taking on her and ending the tyranny.

To understand  the metaphorical meaning of Sāstha better, we have to look at the etymology of the name in Sānskrit as well as examine details of the image of the idol. As an offspring of the Gods of 'being' and 'becoming', Sāstha is a metaphorical representation of life itself as well as how one should be in life. The etymological meaning of the Sānskrit word Sāstha is 'one who is established in the injunctions (of Veda)'. In broader terms, this means a person who lives a life that is founded on the spiritual guidance offered by the Vedas. The idol image of Sāstha is that of a person in a squatting position, with a band running across the legs and the back, preventing the person from getting up or moving. What this indicates is a self-restrained soul, who is totally at rest within oneself and not having the need to hanker after anything. To augment this image, Sāstha is said to have two consorts, Purna (Contentment) and Pushkala (Happiness). Combining these together, we are given the picture of how one should be in life: self-restrained, contented and happy! 

Now, let's look at what Sāstha accomplishes. The word Mahishi has two parts to it, Mahi meaning the earth and isha meaning compulsive attraction. Therefore, Mahishi is the compulsive attraction of earthly pleasures and Sāstha, the epitome of self-restraint, is her annihilator. Again, through the story and image of  Sāstha, we are metaphorically given the guidance on how to overcome the irresistible desires that are the root cause of suffering.

To understand how one should deal with 'becoming', let us turn to the story of Lord Ayyappa. This  story is not from the purāna but based off a folklore from Kerala.  A Pandya king who was displaced by the invading army of Malik Kaffer in the 11th century AD found refuge in a small town in Kerala. His tiny kingdom got the name Panthalam, meaning Pandya's grove (Pandya - Alam).  This king who was childless, happened to find an abandoned child in the forest who he adopted. The child was named Manikantan, one with a bell on his neck, since the baby was found with a tiny bell tied to a string on his neck.  Manikantan grew up to be a great warrior and became the chief of the King's army. More popularly, Manikantan was also known as Ayyappan or Ayyappa. The name was coined from the Tamil word 'Ayya' which is a respectful address to a master and another Tamil word 'appan' which, in this context, is a loving address to a very dear person, usually a boy or youth.

The story tells of an incident of envy and court politics which resulted in Ayyappa being dispatched to the forest to fetch the milk of a tigress with new born cubs. Essentially, Ayyappa was thrown the challenge of accomplishing a deed that appeared to be nothing but certain death for a meaningless cause. Some alternate stories talk about Ayyappa being dispatched to face the forces of a marauding chieftain, Udayanan, who repeatedly attacked Panthalam from the forests.  Long story short, Ayyappa vanquishes his enemy and rides back into the town on a tigress. We can take this to mean that Ayyappa proved that he had overcome all fear of death and was successful in the impossible effort given to him. However, having realized the petty politics and power struggle going on in the court, Ayyappa departs permanently to the forest and instructs the King to come and find him later. No one saw Ayyappa after that and the King who went in search of him in repentance found only the idol of Sāstha in Sabari Mala. The King realizes Ayyappa to have been Sāstha himself in human form. A temple is constructed for Lord Ayyappa at this location along with places for paying respects to Ayyappa's trusted associates that included a pair of tribal warriors and a Muslim warrior named Vāvar. Later on the local folklore and the purāna story have been intermixed  to form the legend of Lord Ayyappa of Sabari Mala who is also worshipped as Sri Dharma Sāstha.

Ayyappa's story fits the  pattern of the 'hero' legend that we will find in many cultures across the world. But from a Hindu religion point of view,  Ayyappa offers the image of how one should face the 'becoming' aspect of life. Face it courageously like a hero, overcome all fear of death and do what is right, selflessly and for the sake of society.  By combining Sāstha and Ayyappa into one image, we are given the comprehensive Hindu philosophy of being and becoming in life.

To reach the abode of Lord Ayyappa in the Sabari Mala temple, one has to climb a stair of 18 steps that stand for the five organs of action, five sense organs,  five prāna (energy systems in body) , mind, intellect and Ahamkāra (I-sense). Climbing these eighteen steps, keeping Lord Ayyappa and Lord Sāstha in mind, and watching the Jyothi (flame) that rises up in the sky on Makara Sankrāti evening could very well be the turning point and the only guidance we will need on how to live life!

God images in Hindu Religion - Part 2

(Continuing from the previous post God Images in Hindu Religion)

Ganesha of the purāna is an interesting story. One day, Pārvathi Devi had playfully created an image of a boy from clay. She was so impressed with her creation that she decided to give life to the image. She took him in as her son and asked him to stand guard of her abode while she had retired into it for resting. Lord Siva who was away at the time and was unaware of this, happened to return the same time. Ganesha who didn't know who Lord Siva was, blocked him also from entering. Lord Siva was extremely annoyed to find a stranger blocking him from entering his wife's residence. In the altercation that followed, Lord Siva  in his anger chopped off the head of the boy. On Pārvathi's pleading and realizing the mistake that had happened,  Siva send out Nandi to kill the elephant and bring back the head. Placing the elephant's head on the torso, Siva brought Ganesha back to life. Blessing his son, Siva made him the chief of his bhutha gana. Ganesha derives his popular name from his lordship over the Siva Gana (gana-isha)

Few key things to note in the story. Ganesha's body is a creation of Parvathi, who is also the Prakriti or Mother Nature, . Ganesha's head is a contribution of Siva, who is the Iswara, the absolute chaitanya (intelligence). Ganesha of purāna is thus a symbol of  what is physical and inert in creation that is enlivened by the presence of intelligence. This includes everything from the fundamental, sub-atomic particles to our own body-mind complex. But why the replacement of a human head with an elephant head ? It is because that the human head which is a product of Māya is incapable of comprehending the Ishwara.  The elephant head, as we discussed in the last post, is symbolic of wisdom and all the qualities like single-pointedness, attentiveness etc. that a true seeker should possess. When one obtains those qualities with the grace of Ishwara, then one rises above the divisions of Ishwara's creation as represented by the many classes (Gana).

To understand the Ganesha of Purāna, we need to consider the entire context of Siva, Pārvathi, Ganesha as well as the younger brother of Ganesha, Lord Kārtikeya.  Just as Ganesha symbolizes everything physical in the creation, Kārtikeya symbolizes everything subtle and non-physical in the universe. Kārtikeya has six faces, symbolizing the five sense organs and the mind which act as the medium of interaction between the subtle and gross. He was born of Siva but not of Parvathi's womb, symbolizing the innate transcendence of Māya in Kārthikeya. He is considered younger to Ganesha  consistent with the concept that the Ishwara entered the universe after creating it ("thad srishtva tad anupravisva" - he entered it having created). Kārtikeya is also called Subrahmania, or he who leads one very well to Brahman. Thus, in the purāna, Ganesha is part of the comprehensive symbolism of the entire universe as represented by Lord Siva the absolute, Pārvathi the Prakriti and Māya, Ganesha the physical aspects of creation and Kārthikeya (the non-physical aspects of creation).

Ganesha gets little mention in the Rik Veda but a significant place of reverence in Atharva Veda as in the Ganapathi Atharvaseesham we saw in the part-1 of this blog post(God Images in Hindu Religion). In the Rik Veda Ganesha is addressed as not only the great leader of Gana but also the elder of all the Lords (jyeshta rājam ) and spiritual leaders (brahmanām brahmanaspatha).  But the key symbolism that we find in Veda for Ganesha is that of 'pranava swarupam', the physical representation of Om. You would notice that the  body profile of Ganesha , from a side-ways view, is same as the symbol of Om. As Pranava is considered single essence of the entire Veda (sarva veda swarupam) , Ganesha becomes the essence of all Vedas. And, Ganesha is also the symbolic representation of the Brahman  just as the Pranava is (tasya vāchaka pranava).  In summary, according to the Veda, Ganesha is the representation of  Brahman, the Vedas and is also the deity representation of Pranava mantra.

If these were the symbolism behind Ganesha, how did Ganesha come to be revered as the remover of obstacles ? (I believe there are Ganesh temples in Chennai that offer special puja to accelerate visa applications in US embassy! ) As we all know, spiritual seeking requires little respite from the personal strife that each of us undergo in everyday life, whether they are sickness, anxiety about our well-being or concerns about the weather. The Vedic Rishis classified the sources of such disturbances into three - Daivika (cosmic), Bhautika (external physical) or Atmika (internal). They prayed for a period of quietude from these disturbances  during the time they were engaged in spiritual matters by chanting the Om followed by three utterings of the word 'sānthi', meaning peace. This simple invocation was later expanded, during the period during which rituals were structured,  into an invocation of Ganesha who was 'pranava swarupa', seeking a removal of any unforeseen obstruction to the conduct of rituals.  Further, during the purāna period that was followed by the Bhakti movement, the same concept further evolved into  the devotional practices that we see today.

While you continue to engage in the devotional practices of today, worshiping Lord Ganesha  for removing difficulties in everyday life, do also take a few minutes to reflect on the rich philosophic symbolism behind the image. Hope this would encourage you to further seek to understand the messages of the great Rishis that have been encoded into the many God images of Hindu religion.

God images in Hindu Religion

As you may know, there are many festivals in the Hindu traditions that happen almost through the entire year. A good number of them happens to fall during the time between August and November every year that we could almost call this time period as the festive season. Two of these festivals, the Ganesha Puja and the Durga Puja are very unique and similar in one respect. In both these celebrations, a temporary idol made of clay is consecrated and worshiped for ten days. And, at the end of the worship period, the idol is ceremoniously discarded into a river or lake. In this annual ritual, one can observe the devotees  attempt to use idols as symbols of a greater God principle  and their conscious effort to transcend the image of the idol in order to connect permanently with its underlying principles. One would easily get agreeable nods from learned Hindus that there is an extensive use of symbolism in the God images that are used for worship. But, at the same time there would hardly be much consensus on what exactly they are which only makes it all the more interesting to explore. Here is an attempt to explore the symbolism behind the image of Maha Ganapathi or Lord Ganesh as popularly known.

 

Before we get into discussing the meaning of the symbols, let's get a consistent picture of what the image is since there appear to be slightly varying versions of it. Ganapthi or Ganesh has the head of an elephant and the body of a human. In the Atharva Veda, we find one of the earliest  hymns on Ganesha called as the Ganapathi Atharvasesham or Ganapathi Atharvopanishad and here is a description of the Ganapathi image from that hymn:

eka dantam - One tusked

chatur hastam - Four handed

pāsam ankusa dhārinam - a rope in one back hand and an elephant goad in the other back hand

radam cha varadam hastair - Removing difficulties and delivering wish fulfillment with one forehand

vibhrānam mushaka dwajam - shines elegantly with a mouse as his sign

raktam lambodaram ṡürpakarnakam …'Reddish in (skin) color, pot-bellied and ears like a winnowing basket

There are more than one way to look at the symbolism behind this including the Yogic, Purānic and Vedic approaches. Let's start with the Yogic approach which is from the point of view of a spiritual seeker

eka dantam - One tusked indicates the single minded purpose of a seeker, which is to know and realize the truth about the self, the world and God. As you may note, this is a noble intent and hence depicted in white color. The tusk also indicates a fierce desire that penetrates all difficulties as depicted by its sharp tip

chatur hastam - Four handed. Hands are the means by which we grasp or accomplish things. For a seeker these means are the sadhana Chatushtaya. The four essential means for spiritual seeking as explained in the sadhana chatushtaya are Viveka (discrimination), Vairagya (dispassion), shadka sampathi (the six positive qualities which are mind restraint, sensual restraint, fortitude, dwelling in higher ideals, faith and mental calmness)

pāsam ankusa dhārinam - a rope in one (back) hand and an elephant goad in the other (back hand). Having a means is not sufficient for a seeker. They need few aides to help them practice those means. The two key aides for a spiritual seeker are the practices of self-restraint as indicated by the rope and ethical living as indicated by the goad that is used to guide  an elephant. In the Yoga sāstra, Patanjali classifies these practices as Yama and Niyama.

radam cha varadam hastair - Removing difficulties and delivering wish fulfillment with one forehand. We all know everyone prays to Gaensha for removing difficulties and blessing one with their wishes. And, when this happens, it doesn't come directly from Ganesha but through someone or something. If this someone or something can act as the God's agents to help us, why Is that we ourselves cannot become God's agent and act in ways that help someone? This symbol of protection and blessing is as much a message to the devotee to practice those qualities as it is a depiction of the Lord. Being socially responsive and compassionate are essential to the spiritual seeker's everyday living

vibhrānam mushaka dwajam - shines elegantly with a mouse as his sign. The root word 'mush' in Sanskrit means to steal. A Mushaka or mouse is called so because it is stealthy and nibbles into what we have cooked or harvested and stored. Why is this a symbol for Ganesha? If you think about it, we also deal with a phenomena that is stealthy, eats slowly into everything that we accomplish and it is very, very tiny! The Mushaka here is a symbol of time and reminds us of the impermanence of things as well as the importance of using the available time wisely. 

raktam lambodaram ṡürpakarnakam …'Reddish in (skin) color, pot-bellied and ears like winnowing basket. The red color is usually used as a symbol of the Rajas quality and is relevant here because there is a need for conscious action from the devotee. Same time, it is not action that is motivated by discontent and greed. The pot-belly of Ganesha depicts a constant state of contentment. In the Yoga practice this is known as 'santhosha' and is prescribed by Patanjali as one of the Niyama.  The Sanskrit word 'ṡürpa' means a winnowing basket that is used by the farm helps to separate out good grains from empty husk shells. Ganesha has ears that resemble the shape of the winnowing basket. A seeker also has to have ears like a winnowing basket that will catch everything but at same time will be diligent to separate out what has substance from what is mere fluff!

In addition, Ganesha also has a big head and a long trunk. This long trunk could be indicative of the Pranayama practice where the outbreath is stretched out.  Pranayama is not merely a breathing exercise. It is a practice that is aimed to build conscious moderation into our activities.  Also, just as an elephant uses its trunk to smell out things before it eats, a seeker should also use discretion on the sensual inputs before letting them into the system. The best way to explain the big head will be to use this term that has become very popular these days, Mind fullness. It means being conscious of the self and actions every single minute, except of course when you are sleeping !

This is not all that is there to the Ganesha image. We will try to examine it from a Vedic and Purānic points of views the next time. Meanwhile, hope this information will help in changing little of what you may contemplate in your daily prayers.

Sānskrit - The language of heavens (and people too!)

How does one learn to communicate? Development of communication skills during early childhood continues to be a subject of research in spite of the many studies already carried out. Marine biologists are continuing to discover more about how whales communicate with each other over hundreds miles under sea. From the perspective of humanity, thousands of languages have come into being over the different parts of the world as the civilization has continued to progress. As you know, languages don't come into being  like an App in your iPhone, pre-packaged and ready to use. They develop over long periods of time through repeated use, some systemization, some innovation and finally by mere evolution. India's ancient language, Sānskrit, was not any different in this respect and had followed such a path in its birth and growth.

The origin of Sānskrit is traced to a language that has been named as the  Proto-Indo-European language, which also happens to be the source for most European languages as well as the Iranian language of Avesta. Development of Vedās and the Sanskrit language  went hand in hand in the early periods of Hindu civilization. Vedās had given lot of importance to the use of sounds and as a result its primary language, Sānskrit, became a  language in which the syllables have more importance than the alphabets. It is simply amazing that almost every Sanskrit word can be traced back phonetically to one or more root sounds from which that word would derive its meaning!

Given the importance of sound in Veda chanting, the first discipline that evolved was called 'Siksha' (pronounced 'şeekshah'). These were established rules of rhythm and intonation to be adopted during mantra chanting. For example, in the Taitiriya Upanishad, we come across the education of students starting with the instruction on Siksha. Once you learn the basics of enunciation in a language, the next step Is building vocabulary. Sanskrit is a language that  used etymology extensively to develop its vast vocabulary . The etymology and the exegesis (i.e, the critical explanation of scriptural terms) was compiled for the first time by a person named Yāska, supposedly around 7th century BCE. This branch of knowledge was considered so important that it was incorporated into the Veda system and is known as 'Nirukta'. 

 

For couple of centuries after Yāska, many grammarians contributed to developing the rules for structuring the words, tense and sentences. All their work were finally compiled in a monumental text called 'Ashtādhyāyi', by Sage Pānini who is considered to be the giant of Sanskrit grammarians. This work of Pānini from 5th Century BCE is the oldest surviving work of grammar in Sānskrit and is considered as the most important milestone in its history. Ancient Sānskrit literature is  in general classified as pre and post Pānini. The work of Pānini was somewhat complex that it  took couple more explanatory works to make it fit for more general use. Two of these explanatory works, first by Kātyāyana in 4th century BCE and the second by Patanjali in 2nd  century BCE form the foundations of Sānskrit grammar. Patanjali's explanatory work is known as the Mahābhāshya, or the Great commentary, in view of its exhaustive and authentic coverage. You should note that Patanjali is also the author of Yogasutra which is the foundational text of Yoga philosophy. The grammarians  and linguists of this period were equally proficient in philosophy and their pursuit of language was intended to equip it better to express the subtle truths of the Hindu philosophy. It is quite doubtful if there is any other language in the world to rival Sānskrit in its ability to pack so much information into so few words. Pregnant with meaning, many of these words are intended to trigger a meditation upon their meaning in the listener rather than mere understanding.

During this developmental period, the form adopted by works in Sānskrit had also moved  from prose to verses. The simple meters of verse used in Veda evolved into more complex 4 part form called as Sloka. The rules of the meters continued to get stricter from the number of syllables in one sloka to number of syllables in one line and finally to even patterns of use of syllables in a line. The length of lines in a sloka also grew as also the use of complex compounding of words.  However, the means of retention was still he oral tradition. The scripts and practices of writing evolved much later in Sānskrit. [ That picture of Lord Ganesha writing down Mahābharatha for Sage Vyāsa is very much questionable:-) ]

By the fourth century of AD, Sānskrit was a fully mature language, capable of handling any type of literary work. Like the mature maiden of the fables waiting for a soul mate to fulfill life's purpose, Sānskrit was probably yearning for a genius of poetical imagination to arrive at its door step to carry it away  over the

Himalayan heights!  And, this happened in the 5th century of AD when the undisputed king of Sānskrit poetry, Kālidāsa, arrived on the scene and delivered his masterpiece Meghaduta. In Kālidāsa's fingertips, Sānskrit danced and dazzled with such splendor and glory that it has not been matched any time before or later.

Kālidāsa

Chandra Gupta Vikramāditya

After the decline of the Maurya dynasty in the 1st century BCE, India had come under the rule of Kushanas, the most prominent of whom was the emperor Kanishka who ruled from the current day Peshawar (Purushapura) in Afghanistan. As this empire also declined in couple of centuries, India came under multiple invasions from its northwest borders. Overall, this was not a bright period in India's history. It was not until the 4th century AD, that a kingdom rose up to subdue the invaders and establish domestic rule. The rein of the Gupta kings, with their capital based at Pataliputra (current day Patna, that is the capital of the State of Bihar) is considered to be the Golden period of Indian history. There was significant progress, both economic and cultural, under the rule of Gupta kings .  Kālidasa was supposedly the crown jewel among the geniuses, known as 'nine gems', who had adored Chandra Gupta Vikramāditya's court. His major works include the Kāvya (poetical works)  of Raghuvamsa, Kumara sambhava, Meghaduta etc. as well as drama like Mālavikagnimitram, Abhnjanasākuntalam and Vikramorvasiyam.

During this period, the subject matter of the Sanskrit literary works had also started to shift away from being religion oriented to tackling everyday human issues, mostly through stories that were based on lives of Kings and other royalty. Drama became a major genre and this development continued into the 12th century. Later on, Sānskrit declined in popular use,  owing to both the impact of Islamic invasions as well as its own increased complexity limiting its use to the scholarly circles. However, there was no dearth of great works that continued to be produced in Sānskrit. The works of Bharthruhari in 14th Century AD and the grammarian Bhattoji Diskhita in 17th century AD are examples of this. As many regional languages took root and evolved in India. the common use of Sānskrit  steadily declined. Attempts are now being made to bring more awareness of Sānskrit  with the public. Irrespective of whether it regains its past glory or not, it is certain that Sānskrit will continue to have an important role in carrying forward the immortal messages of the Rishis of India in the times to come.

Origins of Temple Worship in Hindu Religion

Those of us living in the United States would remember the year 2015 for being  the  harshest winter in our recent memory. The cold air from the Arctic had timed itself perfectly to join hands with precipitation that moved from the south to dump record amounts of snow in the New England and upstate New York areas. Even cities like Boston and Buffalo, generally well accustomed to tough winter weathers, found themselves paralyzed by the ferociousness of the blizzard that hit them.   The ancient Indian city of Taxasila (Taxila in the present day Pakistan) happened to experience a similar situation in 4th century BCE, though from a foreign invasion rather than climate.

By 4th century BCE, Taxasila had become the ancient version of what we may call as a college town today. A number of scholars with incredible knowledge of Vedas as well as Buddhist and Jain thinking had found refuge in Taxasila and were probably running informal schools. The city had experienced occasional invasions from the Persian empire and even had been under the Persian Achaemenid empire for some time. Sitting at the cross roads of Indian, Chinese and Persian cultures, Taxasila was uniquely positioned to nurture scholarship. 

Around 323 BCE, the Greek Emperor Alexander had set on his 'global conquest', marching the Greek army through Egypt, Babylonia, Persia and finally to India.  In addition to the army, the Greek invasion had brought with it new God concepts, mythology, ideas of organized administration and skills of creating stone sculptures. These additional aspects made limited impact elsewhere but when they reached Taxasila and combined with the ideas of Vedic, Puranic and Budhist thinking already in place, what resulted was an incredible shower of new ideas on iconography.  From this was born the new dimension of temple worship in Hindu religion which finally became its most visible face. One could say that, of all those foreigners who invaded India, the Greeks were probably the only ones who brought in more than what they took!  

At the time of Alexander's invasion of Taxasila, there were two important personalities present in the city who would go on to influence India's future in a way that no one else had until that time. One was a great warrior in making, the young Chandra Gupta Maurya and the other a great scholarly statesman, Vishnugupta Chanakya.  Chandra Gupta Maurya went on to build the largest and most progressive Indian empire of the BCEs in India and Chanakya wrote the first Indian text on economics and statesmanship, the Artha Sastra or "The science of wealth"

Emperor Alexander stopped his invasion at the western border states of India and didn't continue into its heartlands, probably because of the challenge offered by the large Nanda army of the state of Magadha as well as the fatigue that had come over his army from the long campaign. Alexander's sudden death in Babylon during his return journey  left a power vacuum for some time but his successor for the Asian regions, Selucus was quick to take charge of the Indian subcontinent  part of the empire. Meanwhile, both Chandra Gupta Maurya and  Chanakya had learned whatever they needed to learn in terms of warfare and statesmanship from the Greeks. They joined hands to successfully overthrow the Nanda dynasty in Magadha leveraging this knowledge. The Maurya dynasty replaced Nanda dynasty in Magadha, established the capital city of Pataliputra (current day city of Patna in Bihar) and expanded all the way from Indian subcontinent's northwest states to areas east of Ganges. Following the successful reversal of an invasion attempt by Selucus, Chandra Gupta Maurya established friendly, cultural relations with the Selucids and even married Selucus's daughter, Helen. Anyway, what is of more interest to us in the current topic is the marriage between Hellenistic culture and India's religious systems.

In my opinion, the scholars of Taxasila would have come to know from the Greeks about the concept of building temples for Gods and worshiping them using icon-centric rituals. Many of these scholars who migrated out of Taxasila following the takeover of the city by Greeks, spread their new knowledge in India's mainland. Pataliputra was the new favorite destination for many of them, as the city flourished under the Maurya  empire. Until the Greeks arrived, India didn't have much expertise in working with stones, either for sculpting or for building palaces. This is one of the most likely reasons that we are unable to find large structural, city like remainders of our great civilization from the BCEs. Most of the construction material that were used at that time were probably blocks of stones, wood and mortar that do not stand the test of time. There was use of baked clay bricks for constructing the fire altar in Yagnas and this knowledge could have come from the Indus valley civilization who knew about making bricks from clay and were adept in pottery.  

Ajanta Caves

One of the first to pick up the granite sculpting techniques were Buddhist monks, who initially started with in-situ rock carvings and murals like those that we find in the Ajanta caves. The Buddha viharas started to have stone pillars and structures  called as Stupa similar to what we find in Saranath, declaring their special identity. Emperor Ashoka, the grand son of Chandra Gupta Maurya, placed most of his edicts across the empire on stone pillars.  The sculpting techniques later on expanded to making free-standing sculptures including the figures of Buddha and other Buddhist divinities.

An Ancient Hindu Temple

This was also the period when the seeds laid down for Puraanas by Sage Veda Vyaasa started to grow. Hindu religion began its move away from the Vedic Gods of Indra, Agni, Vayu etc. replacing their worship with Puraanic Gods of Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, Devi  etc. While the Vedic Gods were always propitiated with Yagna rituals, the Puraanic Gods could be worshiped using their iconic representations. The methods of this worship were formulated and codified closer to the 1st Century AD, and was called the 'Aagama'', meaning ' that which arrived'. Contrarily, the Vedic ordained means of worship were called as 'Nigama', or ' that which originated (here)'. Aagama Sastra developed further during the early centuries of AD,  formalizing the structure of Hindu Temple worship as we know of it today. (Please see my blog post  http://oupanishadam.blogspot.com/2015/02/what-i-see-when-i-go-to-temple.html if you are interested in the philosophical thinking behind the architecture of a Hindu Temple)

Unlike the Greek Gods, the Indian Puraanic God images were not just super human figures but rich philosophic metaphors.  For example, Lord Shiva was a representation of the absolute which is devoid of all earthly decorations; Parvathi represented the Nature relying on whose power everything in creation functions. Shiva is also considered 'ardhanariswara', one half of his body being the male figure of Shiva who is absolute and the other half being Parvathi, the feminine figure representing Nature. Shiva and Parvathi have two  off springs, Lord Ganesha who represents everything that is matter and physical in creation and Lord Karthikeya representing everything that is subtle and non-physical. As you can see, the creators of these iconic images have managed to represent the entire universe in this one single divine family!

Now, it is quite natural to ask the question why do we have to worship these images if they were only metaphorical? The Hindu religious leaders had recognized the fact that it is very difficult for ordinary minds to grasp the abstract thinking required to understand God . It is incredibly difficult to explain God in words. Therefore the next best option was use of metaphorical images.  As we all know, a picture is worth thousand words. Same is true for metaphorical, iconic representations too.  Images also have the ability to engage the mind in its totality and convey ideas that are otherwise extremely difficult to be communicate.

 The Hindu worship of iconic images are intended to stimulate contemplation and aid establishing the connection between the self and the absolute. This is why the Hindus who stand in line for hours for the glimpse of the deity in popular temples, mostly end up keeping the eyes shut during the precious few seconds they get to be in front of the deity! What they instinctively value more is the connection with divinity that the presence in front of the deity has enabled rather than the deity itself. Worshipful attitude is also a great means to rein in the ego that continuously identifies the self with the many worldly things that it really is not.

The Sanskrit word for visiting a Temple and viewing the deity is 'Darshana', which actually means insight. The image and icon are outside but the true vision of them happens inside.   The next time you visit a temple, I would encourage you to take a few minutes to close your eyes and contemplate on what insights you have about your on self, the world and God. This act of contemplation and reflection is the true core of Hindu religion.

Buddhism and Bhagawad Gita: The Age of Universal Religions

If you have followed the announcement of Nobel prize for Sciences, there is a curious phenomenon that you may have observed. Many a times, there are joint winners of the prize from opposite  ends of the planet, who happened to work on the same scientific problem. They have either arrived independently at the same solution around the same time or come up with different solutions that were equally effective. We can only wonder how this happens! In much the same way, during the 6th and 5th century of BCE, many enlightened spiritual masters attempted to solve the riddle of human suffering in everyday life. For example, we have Socrates in Greece, Buddha  and Vyāsa in India and Lao Tsu in China, all of whom took on this same problem and arrived at answers that were not very different.

As you may recall, the Hindu civilization had by the 6th century BCE, settled down into many small kingdoms in the Gangetic plains and assimilated the indigenous population into its fold. A process of consolidation of these kingdoms through wars were also going on. The society was getting structured with groups of people assuming different roles like farming, metal working, trading etc. From a religion point of view, the ritual traditions of the Hindu religion and some purāna stories were commonly known but the philosophic  side of the religion remained mostly obscure. If one had an interest in the philosophical aspects, he or she would have to embark on an extensive search to find a suitable teacher or Guru. The reality of the situation was that the Hindu religion was doing very little at that time to help the average person deal with the everyday issues of life. To this scene had arrived Gautama Buddha with his incredible compassion for the sufferings of the common people.

Buddha's  sole quest was  how to avoid the suffering like old age, sickness and death that everyone, both rich or poor, had to undergo. He accepted the prevailing Hindu concept of rebirth and according to him, the soul experienced life in an eternal, recurring cycle returning to life from death through rebirth. Caught into the endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth, the soul experiences the same suffering over and over. How does one escape from this? Buddha had found a way and was ready to travel around and spread information on this to everyone on how it could be done. No one had to go searching for Buddha. Instead, he went to them, or at least close enough where they could find him easily.

To enable souls to gain a release from the eternal birth/death cycle, Buddha suggested a method that included four fundamental principles (a.k.a., 'noble truths') and an eight fold path. He called this as the 'middle path'. The 'middle path' was a deviation away from both the purely ritualistic, God-appeasing path as well as the atheistic, 'you only live once' kind of mindless enjoyment. This approach, originally called as 'Baudhayana'  or the 'path of Buddha' later on became the religion of Buddhism and was set apart from Hindu religion.  Though the religion appealed easily to the common people,  it also posed couple of issues. Turning to Buddhism in the way Buddha preached, required a person to become a monk, giving up his societal connections. This was very disruptive to the society's functioning. Secondly, Buddha's insistence on Ahimsa weakened the defensive power of societies, increasing their vulnerability to external aggression. The real need of the time was for a religion that supported one to take on a spiritual path that enabled better life while remaining right in the middle of the society. The Hindu religion came up with a great answer for meeting this need through Bhagawad Gita. (The religion of Buddhism also has evolved since to better address these issues)

Bhagawad Gita, that is found in the middle of the Mahābhāratha epic, was most likely a 5th or 4th century BCE insertion into the original epic that dates back to earlier centuries of BCE. It is thought that Mahābhāratha  was originally composed in 24,000 verses and was later expanded to its current form of 100,000 plus verses. The Vyāsa who was the author of original Mahābhāratha is potentially different from the Vyāsa wo authored Bhagawad Gita. Bhagawad Gita itself appears to have been constructed in three distinct parts that were possibly compiled over different periods of time. The core message of the Bhagawad Gita, as presented in the first part consisting of chapters one thru six,  is that  spiritual transformation is a personal journey that could be undertaken while living right in the middle of the society.  A spiritually enlightened person as well as a non-enlightened person, both may engage in performing the same actions in life but with extremely different levels of internal clarity. And, as Buddha had done, Bhagawad Gita also professed a liberation from the eternal cycle of birth and death for such a person. In contrast to Buddha's middle path, Bhagawad Gita offered a path of synthesis that skillfully combined Spiritual knowledge, Devotion, Meditation, Yoga. It offered an interpretation of the Hindu religion that could be practiced equally well by a hermit in an Himalayan cave as well as a warrior in the middle of a battlefield.

A real life example of this transformative spiritual journey is found in the story of Sage Valmiki. He had an amazing life journey from being a wayside robber in the forests to becoming a renowned spiritual master. Sage Valmiki was also a highly imaginative, creative poet. He managed to metaphorically etch his own spiritual journey within the epic of Ramayana while painting the picture of a perfect human being in Lord Rama. (For more detailed reading on Ramayana and Valmiki, check this blog post http://oupanishadam.blogspot.com/2015/03/ramayana-autobiography-of-rishi.html )

It will be delusional to play down the role of faith and belief in religion. As the  human society expanded,  the chaos and uncertainties only continued to increase. And, in times of uncertainty, what has served the individuals and society well is faith in order brought about by a higher, omniscient and all-powerful being, referred to as 'God'. As the influence of Buddhism declined and popularity of the Purāna stories increased, the Hindu religion strengthened itself with a new found means of temple worship of Purānic Gods. The spiritual masters went along with this trend, again skillfully embedding spiritual principles within the iconography of the God images and temple rituals. More on this major transformation that defined the final shape of Hindu religion as we know it today, in the next blog post.

Meanwhile, grab a copy of the Bhagawad Gita if you haven't yet. It is a book that can help you tremendously! (You can find a quick summary of what Bhagawad Gita offers on this blog post: http://oupanishadam.blogspot.com/2014/02/bhagawad-gita-what-is-in-it-for-you.html)